Review Questions – Chapter 7: Learning-Member Exchange Theory

1. What researchers are most associated with leader–member exchange theory?
The researchers most associated with leader-member exchange theory are Graen, Dansereau and Haga. As this theory has developed, more research has been carried out by researchers such as Gerstner and Day in later studies.

2. Explain the differences between in-groups and out-groups.
Both in-groups and out-groups describe the link between leaders and followers. An in-group linkage characterizes a leader-follower relationship that is based on expanded and negotiated responsibilities. Conversely, an out-group characterizes a leader-follower relationship that is based on a formal employment contract. Compared to in-groups, out-group followers receive less information, influence, confidence and concern for their leaders. This type of followers are typically workers who come to work get their job done before going home.

3. How did the focus of research change from early research studies to the later studies?
Whereas initial research studies conducted on LMX addressed primarily the difference between in-groups and out-groups, later studies addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectiveness. Specifically, these later studies focused on how the quality of leader-member exchanges was related to positive outcomes in the organization.

4. What were the findings of the Gerstner and Day (1997) meta-analysis?
Gernster and Day’s 1997 meta-analysis of 164 studies found that LMX was consistently related to member job performance, satisfaction, commitment, role conflict and clarity as well as turn-over intentions.

5. How does communicating through technology at work affect leader–follower relationships?
Communicating through technology at work is likely to affect leader-follower relationships. Technology has the ability to allow more frequent communication between leaders and followers and hence could help develop a high leader-member exchange faster as communication is not bound to face to face interaction. That being said, if not used properly technology will have little to no impact on communication between leaders and followers.

6. What support is there for the validity of the LMX 7 Questionnaire?
The validity of the LMX questionnaire comes from subsequent research studies that link high-quality leader-member exchanges to positive organizational outcomes. Furthermore, the Gernstner and Day studies conducted in 1997 found strong support for the psychometric properties of the LMX 7 questionnaire. The LMX 7 specifically focuses on measuring three dimensions: respect, trust and obligation.

7. Explain the concept of leadership making, including each phase.
Leadership making is perspective approach to leadership that emphasizes leaders developing high-quality exchanges with all of their followers – promoting an organization free of inequities and negative implications. Leadership making is comprised of three different stages: the stranger phase, the acquaintance phase and the mature partnership phase. These are described in more depth below:
1. The stranger phase; constitutes the phase of leadership, in which the leader-follower relationship is primarily rule bound is heavily contractual. They have lower-quality exchanges that are mainly in relation to prescribed organizational roles. At this point the follower is acting out of self-interest rather than the overall good of the group.
2. The acquaintance phase; constitutes the phase of leadership, in which leaders share more resources and or personal and work-related information. This phase acts as a testing period as to whether the follower is interested in taking on more responsibilities as well as if the leader is willing to give these new responsibilities.
3. Mature partnership phase; constitutes the phase of leadership, in which a mature partnership has been developed – leader-member exchange is high. In this stage there is a high degree of mutual trust, respect and obligation towards each other.

8. What is meant by the term “empowerment” and how does it relate to LMX?
The term empowerment in relation to the LMX refers to a followers’ motivation and drive received often from a leader to get a task done. Through studies conducted by Harris, Wheeler and Kacmar in 2008, it was found that high leader-member exchange on issues such as job satisfaction and job performance could compensate for lack of empowerment amongst employee who felt little empowerment – showcasing the importance of having strong leader-follower exchanges.

9. What strategy do researchers typically use to evaluate leader–member exchanges?
To evaluate leader-member exchanges researchers typically use a brief questionnaire that asks both leaders and followers to assess the effectiveness of their working relationship. This includes factors such as trust, respect and obligation.

10. How can leaders best determine how trustworthy or reliable their followers are?
Leaders can best determine how trustworthy of reliable their followers are through using the phases of leadership making. As a follower progresses through each of the phases and gains more knowledge and experience the follower is more likely to be trustworthy and reliable, providing a high leader-follower exchange.

11. Explain how leader–member exchange theory works, both descriptively and prescriptively.
Leader-member exchange theory works in two ways: it describes leadership and it prescribes it. These are described in more depth below:
• Descriptively; focus is on in-groups and out-groups
o Working with in-groups allows leaders to accomplish tasks in a more efficient manner as followers are willing to do more than expected of them.
o Leaders do not give out-groups members special attention as they act strictly within their prescribed organizational roles.
• Prescriptively; best understood within leadership model of Graen and Uhl-Bien
o Leaders should create a special relationship with all followers as well as offering them the opportunity to take on new roles and responsibilities.
o Leaders should nurture high quality leader-member exchanges. This includes looking for ways to build trust and respect for all members of a group.

12. What is the relationship between LMX and employee energy and creativity?
Atwater and Carmeli in 2009 examined the relationship between an employees’ perceived leader-member exchange and their energy and creativity at work. Their findings showcased that a higher perceived leader-member exchange was positively related to feelings of energy in employees leading to greater involvement in creative work. It is important to note here however that LMX theory is not directly associated with creativity, but instead is a mechanism that nurtures people’s feelings which in turn enhances creativity.

13. What are strengths of leader–member exchange theory?
1. Strong descriptive theory; intuitively it makes sense to describe work units by who contributes more and who contributes less. It is very relatable as anyone who has ever worked in an organization would have dealt with in and out groups
2. Focuses on the dyadic relationship; the LMX theory is unique in the sense that it focuses on the dyadic relationship as the centerpiece.
3. Directs our attention to the importance of communication; high quality exchanges are undoubtedly linked to effective communication.

14. What are criticisms of leader–member exchange theory?
1. Goes against initial definition of fairness; what we are taught is fair as kids, through treating everyone equally. In our initial definition we are taught it is wrong to form groups or cliques as they can be harmful to those that are excluded.
2. Basic idea is not fully developed; does not fully explain certain aspects eg. How high-quality leader-member exchanges are created. While it may be implied this is formed a leader finding certain followers more compatible, the guidelines are not easily spelt out.
3. Researchers have not adequately explained contextual factors; because the LMX theory is usually studied in isolation, researchers have not examined the potential impact of other variables on the LMX dyad.

15. How can LMX be applied to different levels of an organization?
LMX can be applied at multiple different levels of an organization. On a higher level of organization LMX could be used to explain how CEO’s or other high ranked individuals form special relationships with select individuals. On a lower level of organization LMX can be used to explain how line managers in a manufacturing plant use a select few workers to accomplish their work quotas for that production unit.

Review Questions – Chapter 6: Path-Goal Theory

1. What researchers are most associated with path–goal theory?
The researchers most associated with path-goal theory are Evans, House, Mitchell and Dessler.

2. What are the assumptions of expectancy theory and how do they undergird path–goal theory?
The assumption of the expectancy theory is that followers will be motivated if they believe they are capable of performing the task, if their efforts will result in a specific outcome and if they believe their effort will pay off and be worthwhile. This provides an undergird for the path-goal theory as it explains the goals that followers choose and how leaders can help reward them and meet their goals through selecting specific leadership behavior to guide them.

3. Explain each of the four leader behaviors considered in path–goal theory.
1. Directive Leadership; characterizes a leader who is authoritative and gives followers instructions as to how and when the task should be done. A directive leader will also set clear standards of performance as to how the task should be done.
2. Supportive Leadership; characterizes a leader who is friendly and approachable and thus attends to the needs of the followers treating them as equals. This type of leader will go out of their way to ensure a pleasant working environment for their followers.
3. Participative Leadership; characterizes a leader who allows followers to be a part of the decision-making process by obtaining their ideas and opinions about how to proceed.
4. Achievement-Orientated Leadership; characterizes a leader who challenges followers to perform their work at the highest possible level, as well as having a high degree of confidence the follower can complete the task.

4. Identify the follower characteristics that influence how workers interpret a leader’s behavior.
The follower characteristics that influence how workers interpret a leader’s behavior include but are not limited to: the need for affiliation, preferences for structure, desire for control and self-perceived level of task ability.

5. How does each follower characteristic affect that interpretation?
An explanation of how each follower characteristic affects their interpretation of a leader is found below:
1. Need for affiliation; believe that a leader’s behavior should be supportive, as this will bring them satisfaction.
2. Preferences for structure; prefer leaders that who are directive and can provide a clear structure for tasks.
3. Desire for control; can be divided into both external and internal control. For followers with external control/locus directive leadership is most effective as it parallels the feeling that outside forces are controlling the circumstance. Conversely, internal locus is best lead by participative leadership, as it allows the leader to feel like an integral part of the decision-making process.
4. Self-perceived level of task ability; suggest that directive leadership is redundant as it can be excessively controlling the higher the competence of the leader.

6. Identify the task characteristics that influence how workers interpret a leader’s behavior.
The task characteristic that influence how workers interpret a leader include: design of the follower’s task, the formal authority system of the organization and the primary work group of followers.

7. How does each task characteristic affect how the leader’s behavior influences motivation?
The effects of each task characteristic on a how a leader’s behavior influences motivation is found below:
1. Design of the follower’s task; may call for leadership when the task is unclear and ambiguous and requires a structure as well as maintaining the motivation.
2. The formal authority system of the organization; leaders become a tool to help the followers by establishing clear instructions and goals.
3. Primary work group of followers; a leader’s behavior can help build motivation through providing a cohesion and role responsibility in a situation in which group norms are weak.

8. Explain the conditions under which each of the four leadership styles is optimally used.
Directive leadership is best in situations of in which followers are dogmatic, authoritarian and the demands of the task are ambiguous. Directive leadership works in this situation through providing guidance and psychological structure for followers.
Supportive style is best in situations, in which tasks are structured unsatisfying or frustrating. This style of leadership provides a nurturing sense of human touch for followers engaged in mundane task or activities.
Participative leadership is optimum in situations when the task is ambiguous. This style of leadership provides greater clarity on how to achieve certain goals as well as helping followers understand the process and what leads to what.
Achievement-orientated leadership is most effective in situations in which followers are required to perform ambiguous tasks. Leaders who use this style of leadership set high standards for their followers, which raises their confidence that they have the ability to achieve the goal.

9. How does a leader’s communication style affect follower satisfaction?
An effective leader is one that attends to the needs of the follower and matches their communication style to allow for optimum growth of the follower. This includes helping define the follower’s goals and the path they need to take in order to reach that goal, including how to overcome obstacles. This specifically involves directing, guiding and coaching their followers along the way.

10. What are strengths of path–goal theory?
The path-goal theory has three main strengths as described below:
1. Provides a useful theoretical framework for understanding how leadership behaviors affect follower’s satisfaction; which helps inform leaders what leadership style is most appropriate to the situation and their followers.
2. Attempts to integrate motivation principles of expectancy theory into theories of leadership; and is the only leadership theory to deal directly with motivation.
3. Provides a practical model; through shouting out to leaders the correct path to goals as well as helping remove obstacles in the way of the follower.

11. What are criticisms of path–goal theory?
The path-goal theory has three main criticisms:
1. Can be confusing; incorporates a lot of aspects that can make interpreting the theory difficult. Because of this it is hard to use the theory fully in any given situation.
2. Only partially supported through research; this is specifically related to the relationship between leadership styles and follower characteristics for example leader directedness having a positive association to followers’ motivation in ambiguous tasks.
3. Does not recognize the full abilities of the followers; as emphasis is put on how leaders can make the followers better through coaching, guidance and direction. Over time this could become counter-productive.

12. How does path–goal theory fit with the four components of leadership (process, influence, groups, and common goals)?
The path-goal theory provides a general set of recommendations as to how leaders should act in different situations. The path-goal theory focuses on how leaders can help followers to achieve their goals. The process component of leadership naturally comes in here as the leader must assess how to best guide and influence the follower to achieve their goal, benefiting the common goal of the organization. The group component of leadership while not explicitly prominent in the path-goal theory, is still relevant in establishing the needs of the group to allow certain leadership behaviors to be portrayed.

Review Questions – Chapter 5: Situational Approach

1. What is situational leadership?
Situational leadership recognizes that different situations demand different forms of leadership. Being an effective leader within the situational approach means one can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands of the situation – specifically with regards to followers’ commitment and competency. This form of leadership is composed of two main components, both the directive and the supportive dimension.

2. What researchers are associated with the most important situational leadership studies?
Hersey and Blanchard are two researchers associated with situational leadership studies. They helped to develop the model ‘situational leadership’, which is considered to be the most important situational leadership study.

3. What are the characteristics of the four categories of directive and supportive behaviors?
1. Directing style (high directive-low supportive style); focuses communication on goal achievement (often through the form of instructions) and spends a smaller amount of time on supportive behavior.
2. Coaching Approach (high directive-high supportive style); focuses communication on the balance of achieving goals as well as meeting followers’ socioemotional needs. The leader in this approach, however still makes the final decision on the what and how of goal accomplishment.
3. Supporting Approach (high supportive-low directive style); focuses more on supportive behaviors, including listening, praising, and giving feedback, in order for followers to achieve goals.
4. Delegating Approach (low supportive-low directive style); offers less goal input and social support, which facilitates followers’ confidence and motivation with regards to their goal.

4. What are the characteristics of the four levels by which employee development can be classified?
1. DI: followers are low competence and have high commitment – they are excited about the challenge.
2. D2: followers have some competence, but low commitment. They have lost some of their initial motivation.
3. D3: followers who have moderate to high competence but may have variable commitment. They have developed the skills, but lack certainty as to whether they can complete the goals set forth.
4. D4: followers highest in development – they have high degree of competency and commitment. They have the skills and the motivation to get the job done.

5. How can a leader best determine the developmental level of followers?
Through determining the nature of the situation and answering prompt questions such as ‘What goal are followers being ask to achieve?’ and ‘Are followers sufficiently skilled to carry out the task?” the leader can identify which of the four levels of development their employee most closely matches. Once this is determined the leader should adjust their leadership style to appropriately match their employee in order to allow them to grow.

6. Why should developmental levels not be used to label followers?
Developmental levels should not be used to label followers as an employee’s level of development are constantly changing. Where the employee is placed on the spectrum is dependent on the situation, in which the same employee can vary based on their previous competency as well as the difficulty of the task at hand. As a result of this variation it is the job of the leader to be flexible in their leadership style and adapt when an employee’s developmental level changes, rather than simply labeling it.

7. How does the developmental continuum work?
The development continuum works in such a way that followers can move up and down the continuum (and four different levels) from one extreme of low competency and high commitment (D1) to the other extreme of both high competency and high commitment (D4). This occurs over a period of time, whether short or long, as levels of competency and commitment change. Leaders need to thus be highly flexible in their leadership behavior and cannot always revert to the same leadership style for every situation.

8. In the SLII Model, why does commitment go down for D3 subordinates?
In the SLII Model, commitment likely goes down for D3 subordinates as despite having moderate to high competency and the skill set needed to get the job done they are uncertain as to whether or not they can accomplish the goal set forth for them.

9. Explain why it might be difficult for some leaders to exhibit Style 4 leadership.
It might be difficult for some leaders to exhibit Style 4 leadership for two main reasons. Firstly, this type of leadership could prolong the amount of time it takes for the group to complete a goal, as well as having varying levels of commitment within the group. Secondly, this form of leadership could be seen as less effective by leaders as they are essentially taking a step back from leading and letting their followers who most likely have less experience lead.

10. What are strengths of the situational approach?
The situational approach of leadership has five main strengths as described below:
1. History of usefulness in the marketplace; frequently used for training organizations as well as being perceived as a useful model in displaying effective leadership.
2. Practicality; this leadership approach, unlike other approaches, is easy to understand and easily applicable to a variety of settings.
3. Has prescriptive value; compared to other forms of leadership the situational approach acts as guidelines for leaders to facilitate and enhance leadership, through telling them what they should or should not do in certain circumstances.
4. Emphasizes leadership flexibility; and emphasizes that leaders need to get to know their followers in order to apply the appropriate leadership style. In order for this to work effectively they have to be willing to adapt and change their personal leadership style.
5. Not every follower is the same; and they should be treated accordingly. This approach of leadership suggests followers have unique needs and it is the duty of the leader to help their leaders to become better at their job.

11. What are criticisms of the situational approach?
The situational approach of leadership has seven main criticisms which are described below:
1. Only backed up by a few research studies; the lack of a body of research on this topic raises questions about the theoretical basis of the approach including, but not limited to validity as well as the success of the approach.
2. Ambiguous conceptualization of followers; the model itself does not make clear how commitment is combined with competency to form four distinct levels of development.
3. Concern about how commitment is conceptualized; as well as why commitment varies up and down throughout the continuum as supposed to a gradual incline.
4. How the model matches leadership style with follower developmental levels; as research suggests there is not a direct correlation.
5. Fails to consider certain demographics; and the impact they have on the leader-follower prescriptions of the model such as education, experience and age.
6. Does not address how leadership within a group should be; and does not provide concrete guidelines as to whether a leader should follow the preference of the group or the particular individual they may be working with at the time.
7. Questionnaires to address effectiveness of leadership; are based on predetermined questions, which show a biased favor towards situational leadership.

12. How do demographic characteristics affect employees’ preferences for a particular leadership style?
Demographic characteristics such as age, gender and education level can impact one’s preference for a particular leadership style. Research has shown for example that level of education and job experience were inversely related to directive leadership. In other words, followers with a higher degree of education and job experience wanted less structure in their work environment. A similar model can be applied to the other demographic characteristics such as gender and age.

Review Questions – Chapter 4: Behavioral Approach

1. Where and by whom were the most important studies about leadership style conducted?
The most important studies conducted on leadership style, in particular the impact of a leader’s behavior, were the researchers in Ohio state studies (1940’s), the researchers in Michigan Studies at the University of Michigan (1940’s) and the Studies conducted by Blake and Mouton (in the early 1960’s).

2. What methods have researchers used to investigate leadership style?
Researchers have used many different methods to investigate leadership, most prominently questionnaires and case studies. The sort of questionnaires that were conducted asked followers to identify how many times their leader engaged in certain types of behavior, a questionnaire that was later called the LBDQ (Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire) and the LBDQ-XII. This questionnaire has become the most widely used instrument in leadership research and development.

3. How do these research findings differ? What do they have in common?
While these three research findings all focus on the behavior in relation to leadership they vary in certain aspects. The Ohio state studies responses for instance, are clustered around two broad types of behavior (initiating structure, which includes task behavior and consideration, which include relationship behaviors) that are considered to be distinct and independent. The degree to which one of the behaviors is exhibited is not dependent on the other type of behavior. In other words, they are not on the same continuum.
University of Michigan, however, explored leadership through special attention to the impact of leader’s behaviors on the performance of small groups. They identified two main types of behaviors (employee orientation, and production orientation). They identified these as opposites ends of the same continuum in contrast with Ohio state. These were later reconceptualized as independent.
Finally, in comparison to the Ohio State studies and the Michigan studies, the Leadership grid identified two different main factors to include, concern for production and concern for people.

4. What are the characteristics of each of the seven leadership styles shown on the Leadership Grid?
1. Authority; places heavy emphasis on task and job requirements and interpersonal relationships are unlikely to interfere.
2. Country-club management; represents a high concern for interpersonal relationships in comparison to a low concern for task accomplishment.
3. Impoverished management; represents a leader that goes through the motions of being a leader and puts in minimal effort to get the job done.
4. Middle-of-the-road management; are leaders characterized by compromise, who constantly try to find a balance between interpersonal relationships and completion of a task.
5. Team management; is a leader who accomplishes work through committed people. They place strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationships.
6. Paternalism/Materialism; also known as the ‘benevolent dictator’ is a leader that acts graciously for the purpose of goal accomplishment. This form of leadership can be seen as paternal or maternal as leaders treat their followers as family, making the key decisions for them and rewarding their loyalty and punishing their noncompliance.
7. Opportunism; refers to a leader who uses any of the first five leadership styles for the purpose of personal advancement. This leader will shift their leadership style depending on the situation to ensure optimum results.

5. What were the purposes for which the LBDQ and the Leadership Grid were designed?
While both the LBDQ and the leadership grid were both designed to examine the behavior of leaders within group settings they vary slightly in their purpose. The LBDQ’s purpose was to analyze how individuals acted when they were leading a group/organization. Conversely, the Leadership Grid purpose was to explain how leaders help organizations reach their product through focus on two main factors, concern for production and concern for people.

6. How should leaders attempt to balance their task and relationship behaviors?
While there is no tell all solution for leaders to balance the task and relationship when working with groups there are a few different days this balance could be attempted. The first of which is a shift to focus on the situation and to realize that some instances are more tailored to tasks, whereas others are geared towards relationships. Secondly, one could use the middle-of-the-road approach as highlighted in the Leadership grid. This style of leadership suggests a constant compromise, and often avoidance of conflict, in order to try and maintain a balance between their task and relationship behaviors.

7. What is the relationship between a leader’s dominant style and backup style?
A leader’s dominant style is what they utilize in most circumstances. A leader’s backup style is a style that is often reverted to when the leader is in situations of pressure and the usual or dominant style of leadership is not working.

8. How is an individual’s personal interest in tasks and relationships related to how she or he shows task and relationship leadership?
In general, the more personal interest a leader has in a task or relationship the more likely he or she is likely to show task and relationship leadership. For example, a college professor who on the first day of class goes through the syllabus and then dismisses the class is most likely displaying task-oriented leadership. Conversely, a professor who on the first day spends the majority of the time doing ice breakers and activities to get to know one another is most likely displaying relational leadership.

9. How might the behavioral approach be used for personal awareness and development?
The behavioral approach can be used for personal awareness and development in a number of different ways. One of these ways, allows leaders to subdivide their own behavior into two main dimensions (tasks and interpersonal), which can subsequently have three effects on one’s personal awareness and development. Firstly, this approach allows one to focus on what works in the setting they are currently in. Secondly, it reminds leaders that their impact on others can occur through both the tasks they perform and their relationships. Thirdly, through determining how a leader is coming across to others and how they could change their behaviors to be more effective. It provides a mirror for leaders that ensues regular check-ups.

10. What makes it difficult to identify a universal “best” leadership style?
One of the main reasons it is difficult to identify a universal ‘best’ leadership style is that leadership is dependent on the context – there is no one size all form of leadership that will work for every context. In this sense being both highly task orientated and highly relational may be optimum in one situation, but as research suggests this may not be the optimum for all situations.

11. What are strengths of the behavioral approach?
The behavioral approach has four key strengths. Firstly, this approach marked a shift in the general focus of leadership research. It broadened leadership to include their actions and not just their characteristics or traits. Secondly, the behavior approach to leadership is backed up by a wide range of studies including the Ohio State University study, The University of Michigan Studies and Blake and McCanse’s studies which give the approach a considerable amount of credibility. Thirdly, researchers of this approach have defined two clear types of behavior; task and relationship. The key to being an effective leader rests in being able to balance the two. Finally, the leadership approach is heuristic. This means it provides us with a broad map or framework of leadership, of which leaders can learn a lot about their leadership styles through.

12. What are criticisms of the behavioral approach?
As with the strengths of the behavioral approach, this approach also has three key criticisms. Firstly, research on behavioral approach has not adequately shown how leaders’ behaviors are associated with performance outcomes. Researchers have not been able to establish a consistent link between task and relationship behaviors such as job morale, which cause gaps to be made in the approach. Secondly, this leadership style is not necessarily applicable in every setting, and as such failed in finding a universal leadership behavior list. Finally, the behavioral approach suggests that most effective leadership requires a high-high approach, in other words high task and high relationship. However, through research it has been shown that this is only the case within certain contexts and other situations may require different leadership styles.

Review Questions – Chapter 3: Skills Approach

1. Who began the discussion that led to the skills approach?
Robert Katz led the discussion on the skills approach. He did this through publishing an article entitled ‘Skills of an effective administrator’ in the Harvard Business Review in 1955. At the time of Katz’s article and study, researchers were trying to identify a definitive set of leadership traits. Katz’s article provided an alternative viewpoint to leadership and argued that leadership was set of developable skills rather than inherited traits or characteristics.

2. What methods have Mumford and his colleagues used to investigate leadership skills and effectiveness?
The main method Mumford and his colleagues used to investigate leadership skills and effectiveness was skill-based modeling. This particular method focused on a leader’s ability to solve problems through skills rather than inherited traits.

3. Explain the difference between a skill and a trait.
A skill is an ability that can be learned over time and accomplished, whereas a trait is largely viewed as innate and fixed.

4. Explain each element of the Three-Skill Approach.
Katz suggested that effective administration is composed of three key skills (the Three-Skill Approach); technical, human and conceptual. These are described below in more depth.
A technical skill suggests a proficiency within a certain specific field. This is a hands-on activity that requires a process within an organization. One way this is showcased is through the ability to use appropriate tools for the specified field. A simple example of this could work includes working in a computer software company and understanding how computer software works.
Secondly, a human skill can be described as the knowledge about and the ability to work with people (as supposed to things). These abilities help a leader to work well with their followers, peers and superiors in order to accomplish the organizations goals. Katz’ describes human skills as ‘being aware of one’s perspective and other’s perspectives on issues’. This means leaders will adapt their ideas to the ideas of others. Human skills also entail an atmosphere of trust, in which the employees feel comfortable and encouraged to become involved.
Finally, conceptual skills suggest the ability to work with ideas and concepts. Being a leader with conceptual skills, means you are comfortable talking about the ideas that shape the organization both on a broad and intricate level. A leader with conceptual skills works easily with hypothetical and abstract notions and knows how to develop them. Conceptual skills are central to creating a vision for an organization that will allow the organization to be successful and effective.

5. At what organizational level are each of the three skills most important?
The three skills described above although important in leadership, have a varying importance in different organizational levels. These differences for each skill are described below:
• Technical skills are most important in the lower and middle levels of the organization as these are generally the people producing the product of the organization.
• Human skills are equally important at every level of the organization and are needed to ensure effective and successful leadership.
• Conceptual skills are most important at the highest level of organization, specifically the bosses of the companies. In fact, lack of conceptual skills might jeopardize the whole organization.

6. Explain each of the elements and components of the Mumford Skills Model.
The Mumford skills Model is a capability model that examines the relationship between a leader’s knowledge and skills compared with their performance. This model suggests that people are capable of learning new skills to develop the potential for leadership. This model consists of three main competencies as described below.
The first competency is problem-solving skills. This competency entails a leader’s creative ability to solve new and unusual problems. The second competency is social judgement skill, or the ability to understand people and social systems. This competency includes perspective taking and knowing how other people view problems as well as social perceptiveness and social performance. The final competency is knowledge, which is the
accumulation of information organized into a schema (a summary of outline). Knowledge results from having developed a complex schema. Those who have the most information on a particular schema are considered to be experts.
The Mumford skills model is also composed of four key individual attributes, namely general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation and personality. These individual attributes combined with the three main competencies lead to effective problem solving and performance.

7. Explain each of the nine key problem-solving skills of leaders.
Problem-solving skills entail a leader’s ability to solve new and often unusual challenges. These skills can be sub-divided into nine key problem-solving skills as defined below (not necessarily in chronological order):
1. Problem definition; The ability of a leader to define significant problems affecting an organization.
2. Cause/goal analysis; the ability of a leader to analyze the goals and causes relevant to addressing a problem.
3. Constraint analysis; the ability of a leader to identify the constraints, and limiting factors, influencing a problem solution.
4. Planning; the ability of a leader to formulate plans, mental situations and actions arising from cause/goal and constraint analysis.
5. Forecasting; the ability of a leader to anticipate the implications of executing plans.
6. Creative thinking; the ability of a leader to develop alternative plans and ideas for addressing caveats in solutions should they arise.
7. Idea evaluation; the ability of a leader to evaluate alternative approaches as well as their viability when solving a problem.
8. Wisdom; the ability of a leader to evaluate the appropriateness of alternative approaches within the context in which he/she acts.
9. Sensemaking/visioning; the ability of a leader to articulate a vision that will help followers make sense of and act on a problem.

8. What career experiences could help a person develop his or her problem-solving skills?
Career experiences can have a direct impact on the development of ones problem-solving skills. An example of this includes certain on-the-job assignments that have the ability to enhance a leader’s motivation or intellectual ability. Additionally, leaders are more likely to learn and develop higher levels of conceptual capacity if these kinds of problems or on-the-job assignments become progressively more complex as they ascend the organizational hierarchy.

9. Explain how all the arrows work in the Mumford Skills Model (Figure 3.3). How do attributes influence competencies? How do competencies influence outcomes? How do career experiences affect competencies and attributes? How do environmental influences affect competencies, attributes, and outcomes?
As can be seen in figure 3.3 career experiences have a direct impact on both individual attributes and competencies. Career experiences allow one’s individual attributes such as general cognitive ability to be developed as more skilled are learned, which can in turn improve competencies such as problem-solving skills. In this sense the more individual attributes are developed the more the three key competencies will develop as a result. These competencies can than influence leadership outcomes as they represent the end point. For example, if problem-solving skills are applied by a leader to a problem in a successful way, the natural outcome will be effective problem solving. Finally, environmental influences (both internal and external) affect all of the skills model as they have an impact on how a leader leads.

10. How might the skills approach be used for personal awareness and development?
The skills approach can be used for personal awareness and development in multiple different ways. One example of this pertains in the definitive idea of the skills approach. This suggests that if a leader understands the skills required of a leader that they often can then reflect on their own leadership and become more self-aware of their leadership characteristics. More specifically, the skills approach provides a map to successful and effective leadership, which when studied carefully can lead to personal development.

11. What are strengths of the skills approach?
There are four main strengths of the skill approach. Firstly, the skills approach is a leader-centered model that stresses the importance of developing particular leadership skills. This is important as this was the first model of leadership to do so. Secondly, the skills approach is intuitively appealing. This makes leadership available to everyone and a quality that can be developed over time. Thirdly, the skills approach provides a more expansive view of leadership that incorporates different components (e.g. problem-solving skills, knowledge) and finally the skills approach is generally consistent with most educational programs surrounding leadership making it easy to understand and apply into everyday life.

12. What are criticisms of the skills approach?
The skills approach has four main criticisms. Firstly, the breadth of the skills approach seems at times to stretch beyond the boundaries of leadership. An example of this includes the mentioning of motivation, critical thinking and personality, which as a result addresses more than just leadership. Secondly, the skills approach is weak in predictive value. This suggests the skills approach dies not clearly explain how certain components such as problem-solving skills and social judgement skills fit together. Thirdly, the skills approach, specifically the individual attributes, includes a lot of trait-like qualities, that shift the model away from being a strictly skills-based model. Finally, as the skills approach was constructed within a military setting it may not be applicable to every situation of leadership.

13. How does the skills approach fit with the four components of leadership?
The skills approach and the four components of leadership are building blocks towards one another. Firstly, the skills approach identifies what an effective leader looks like at the relevant organizational level and defines which skills of the three-skill approach are most relevant to the leader. These skills could include technical, human or conceptual. Once the leader has been identified the four components of leadership (the process, influence, groups and common goals) can then be applied to continue effective leadership within the organization such as maintaining common goals.