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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Ch. 7)

What researchers are most associated with leader-member exchange theory?

LMX Theory was first described in the works of Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975), but has continued to be of interest to researchers even today.

 

Explain the differences between in-groups and out-groups.

In-Groups: A type of leader-follower relationship that is based on expanded and negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles)

Out-Groups: A type of leader-follower relationship that is based on the formal employment contract (defined roles)

 

How did the focus of research change from early research studies to the later studies?

The initial studies of this theory addressed primarily the nature of the differences between in-groups and out-groups. The new studies addressed the relationship between those groups and organizational effectiveness.

 

What were the findings of the Gerstner and Day (1997) meta-analysis?

Gerstner and Day (1997) found that LMX was consistently related to member job performance, satisfaction (overall and supervisory), commitment, role conflict and clarity, and turnover intentions.

 

What support is there for the validity of the LMX 7 Questionnaire?

Gerstner and Day (1997) also found that there is strong support for the psychometric properties of the LMX 7 Questionnaire.

 

Explain the concept of leadership making, including each phase.

Leadership making develops progressively over time in three phases.

Phase 1: Stranger

Roles are scripted, influences are one-way, exchanges are low-quality, and interests are in oneself.

Phase 2: Acquaintance

            Roles are tested, influences are mixed, exchanges are medium-quality, and interests are in

            oneself and the other.

Phase 3: Partnership

Roles are negotiated, influences are reciprocal, exchanges are high-quality, and interests are in the group.

 

What strategy do researchers typically use to evaluate leader-member exchanges?

To evaluate leader-member exchanges, researchers typically use a brief questionnaire that asks leaders and followers to report on the effectiveness of their working relationships.

 

Explain how leader-member exchange theory works, both descriptively and prescriptively.

Descriptively, LMX Theory suggests that it is important to recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups within a group or an organization.

Prescriptively, LMX Theory suggests that leaders should create a special relationship with all followers, similar to the relationships described as in-group relationships.

 

What is the relationship between LMX and employee energy and creativity?

When the relationships between leaders and followers are of high-quality, the goals of the leader, the followers and their creativity, and the organization as a whole are all advanced.

 

What are strengths of leader-member exchange theory?

  • It is a strong descriptive theory—it makes sense that those who contribute more get more and those who contribute less get less out of an organization.
  • It is unique because it’s the only leadership approach that makes the concept of the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process.
  • It directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership.
  • It warns leaders to avoid letting their conscious or unconscious biases influence who is invited into the in-group.
  • Research shows that the practice of the LMX Theory is related to positive organizational outcomes.

 

What are criticisms of leader-member exchange theory?

  • Leader-member exchange in its initial formulation runs counter to the basic human value of fairness.
  • It promotes the development of privileged groups in the workplace.
  • It does not address the other fairness issues such as followers’ perceptions of the fairness of pay increases and promotion opportunities, decision-making rules, or communication of issues within the organization.
  • The basic ideas of the theory are not fully developed.
  • Researchers have not adequately explained the contextual factors that may have an impact on LMX relationships.
  • Questions have been raised about the measurement of leader-member exchanges in LMX Theory. No empirical studies have used dyadic measures to analyze the LMX process.

 

How can LMX be applied to different levels of an organization?

  • LMX Theory could be used to explain how CEOs develop special relationships with select individuals in upper management to develop new strategic and tactical corporate goals.
  • It could be used to explain how line managers in a manufacturing plant use a select few workers to accomplish the production quotas of their working unit.
  • It can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks throughout an organization to help them accomplish work more effectively.

 The LMX theory tells us how to be aware of how we relate to our follow

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Path-Goal Theory (Ch. 6)

 

What researchers are most associated with path-goal theory?

Evans (1970), House (1971), House and Dessler (1974), and House and Mitchell (1974) are the researchers that are most associated with path-goal theory.

 

What are the assumptions of expectancy theory and how do they undergird path-goal theory?

Expectancy theory assumes that followers will be motivated if they think they are capable of performing their work—if they believe their efforts will result in a certain outcome, and if they believe that the payoffs for doing their work are worthwhile. The expectancy supports the path-goal theory because it ensures that if followers are motivated and on set paths, they can work to help accomplish the goal of the group.

 

Explain each of the four leader behaviors considered in path-goal theory.

Directive: The leader gives followers instructions about their task, including what is expected of them, how it is to be done, and the timeline for when it should be completed. A directive leader sets clear standards.

 Supportive: The leader is friendly and approachable, and attends to the well-being and human needs of the followers.

Participative: The leader consults with the followers, obtains their ideas and opinions, and integrates their suggestions into decisions about how the group or organization will proceed.

 Achievement-Oriented: Leader sets high goals for followers and expects continuous improvement.

 

Identify the follower characteristics that influence how workers interpret a leader’s behavior.

– need for affiliation

– preferences for structure

– desires for control

– self-perceived level of task ability

 

How does each follower characteristic affect that interpretation?

 Followers who feel the need for affiliation look for leaders who are supportive. Followers who are authoritarian and dogmatic need a leader who is directive because they require a strong foundation and structure when attempting to complete tasks that they are uncertain about. Followers with a desire for control split into two subgroups: internal loss of control and external loss of control. For followers who have an internal loss of control, a leader who is participative is ideal, and for followers who have an external loss of control, a leader who is directive is ideal.

 

Identify the task characteristics that influence how workers interpret a leader’s behavior.

-the design of the followers’ tasks

-the formal authority system of the organization

-the primary work group of followers

 

How does each task characteristic affect how the leader’s behavior influences motivation?

In a situation where the leader of a group is required to step up and clarify rules and regulations, follower motivation most likely increases. Motivation is also increased in any circumstance in which the leader helps the followers to overcome obstacles.

 

Explain the conditions under which each of the four leadership styles is optimally used.

Directive style of leadership is best in situations in which followers are dogmatic and authoritarian, the task demands are ambiguous, the organizational rules are unclear, and the task is complex.

Supportive style works best with tasks that are structured, unsatisfying or frustrating.

Participative leadership is best when a task is ambiguous; it gives greater clarity of how certain paths lead to certain goals. Also, is best when followers are autonomous and have a strong need for control.

Achievement-oriented leadership is most effective when followers are challenged to perform ambiguous tasks.

 

What are strengths of path-goal theory?

-It provides a useful theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership behaviors affect followers’ satisfaction and work performance.

-It attempts to integrate the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership.

-It provides a model that, in certain ways, is very practical.

 

What are criticisms of path-goal theory?

–It’s so complex that interpreting it can be confusing.

-It is received only partial support from the many empirical research studies that have been conducted to test its’ validity.

-It fails to explain adequately the relationship between leadership behavior and follower motivation.

-It places a great deal of responsibility on leaders and much less on followers.

 

How does path-goal theory fit with the four components of leadership (process, influence, groups, common goals)?

Path-goal theory suggests that leadership is a process by showing leaders that they have to get to know their followers and get to know the common goal he/she has with them over time in order to know how to best lead them in the correct direction. This applies to each of the four components of leadership.

 

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Situational Approach (Ch. 5)

What is situational leadership?

Situational leadership can be described as a leadership style in which the leader adjusts his/her way of leading based on the development and progress of the group.

 

Define leadership style. Identify, explain, and give examples of behaviors corresponding with four proposed styles.

Leadership style is the behavior pattern of someone who attempts to influence others. It includes both directive behaviors and supportive behaviors.

  1. Directing Approach: (high directive-low supportive) Focuses communication on goal achievement—little time using supportive behaviors.
  2. Coaching Approach: (high directive-high supportive) Communication is focused on both achieving goals and meeting followers’ socioemotional needs. Leader is involved with followers.
  3. Supporting Approach: (high supportive-low directive) Focuses more on supportive behaviors and uses to bring out followers’ skills around the goal to be accomplished.
  4. Delegating Approach: (low supportive-low directive) Leader offers little goal input and social support. The leader gives the control to the followers completely—lacking in actual leadership.

Define development level. Identify, explain, and give examples of followers who would fit each of the four proposed development levels.

Development level is the degree to which followers have the competence and commitment necessary to accomplish a given goal or activity.

D1. Low competence, high commitment – Excited about challenge, but don’t know how to accomplish it.

D2. Some competence, low commitment – Started to learn, but lost some motivation.

D3. Moderate to high competence, variable commitment – Developed required skills, but uncertain about accomplishing it on their own.

D4. High competence, high commitment – Have both the skills and motivation required to accomplish the task at hand.

 

Explain the two steps leaders must fulfill to be effective. Apply these steps to a current situation in which you are a follower. What style would be most appropriate for leading you, according to the theory, and why? Do you agree?

  1. Leader accurately diagnoses the development level of followers in a goal situation.
  2. Leader exhibits the prescribed leadership style that matches that situation.

In my biology class, over half of us got a D or below on the first exam. My professor didn’t spend any time going over what we missed, and instead moved on. If the professor wanted to be a good leader, he would’ve used that information to diagnose our ability and motivation. In order for him to be successfully influential to us, he would do what he can to make sure we get stronger where our weaknesses lie before moving on to more complex concepts. He needs to have more of a coaching approach to teaching us.

 

Complete Case 5.2. (or 5. 1. or 5.3). Answer all questions.

  1. Ann doesn’t know how to properly train the students as far as the legal rules and regulations go, and because of this, there have been several incidents when student have violated these laws and rules.
  2. Ann needs to be a little more directive. She’s focusing so much on building a good relationship with the students, that they tend to not see her as an authority figure as much, and don’t take the job seriously enough.
  3. Ann could create a game in which the students will also learn the rules well, and she can go over the penalties that come from disobeying those laws.

 

Complete the measure, Situational Leadership: A Brief Questionnaire. How well did you do?

Situation 1: D4, A

Situation 2: D1, C

Situation 3: D2, C

Situation 4: D3, C

 

What factors might make it harder for you to be more directive as a leader? More supportive?

A person who doesn’t feel comfortable telling people what they need to will have a hard time being directive. Those who don’t have good human skills will have a hard time being more supportive.

 

Does a leader’s motivation for adapting his or her leadership style have any effect on followers? In other words, would a leader with a high concern for task differ from a leader with a high concern for relationships?

If a leader is trying to influence the followers, he/she must be willing to adjust in order to incorporate the ideas and suggestions of his/her followers. I believe that leaders that have higher strengths in both task-orientation and relationship-orientation would be willing to adjust their leadership styles. The only difference would be the motivation for doing so. A task-oriented leader would change his/her style because it would contribute to progress. A relationship-oriented leader would change his/her style based on the feedback from his/her followers.

 

How well defined is the developmental level of followers in the SLII model? What outside influences might affect followers’ commitment or competence?

Every person is different. The SLII gives a good outline, but humans are so diverse, that it can’t tell a leader the exact steps to take to be effective. A leader can only do so much to direct a follower’s commitment or competence.

 

What would follower competence and commitment look like in your line of work (i.e. how are these qualities conceptualized)?

Being a student, competence and commitment have a lot to do with what grades I receive. I need to have both high competence and high commitment if I want the 4.0 GPA I’m striving for.

 

Are seasoned workers permanently at the D4 level? How well does the SLII model fit the work experience of an employee who’s held the same position for 20 years?

The longer someone does something, usually means the less motivated they become in that job. There are some, however, that genuinely love what they do, and they have consistent high levels of both competence and commitment.

 

If a leader uses a different style of leadership with each of his followers, how might that lead to perceptions of favoritism? What could a leader do to avoid such impressions while still being adaptable to follower needs?

If a leader seems to connect with one follower better than another, the one with less connection might become jealous and less motivated to follow that leader. To avoid this, the leader simply needs to be consistent with his/her style of leadership.

 

How might the situational approach be affected by the number of followers that a leader has?

The more followers a leader has affects the situational approach because he/she has to be able to connect with as many individuals as possible. Smaller groups are easier to direct and connect with.

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Behavioral Approach (Ch. 4)

Explain the style/behavioral approach and two general kinds of behaviors. What is the central purpose of the style approach?

The style approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader. The behavioral approach focuses on what leaders do and how they act. Two general kinds of behaviors are: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. The central purpose of the style approach is to explain how leaders combine these two kinds of behaviors to influence followers in their efforts to reach a goal.

 

Summarize the research methods and results of the Ohio State and Michigan studies. How were the findings similar and different? What were the overall findings in the collaborative studies in the 1950s and 1960s?


Ohio State


Methods: Followers completed questionnaires about their leaders. Followers had to identify the number of times their leaders engaged in certain types of behaviors. LBDQ (Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire)

Results: Two general types of leadership behaviors: initiating structure and consideration. Being high in both behaviors is the best form of leadership.

Michigan:

Methods: Two orientations: employee orientation and production orientation.


Results: The two constructs are two independent leadership orientations. Leaders are able to be oriented toward both production and employees at the same time.
Similar findings: Findings were similar in that they suggest the leader can develop these 
styles, and it’s not just based on being good at one skill or the other.


Collaborative findings: Some of the findings pointed to the value of a leader being both highly task oriented and highly relationship oriented in all situations, but it was mostly all inconclusive.

 

Compare and contrast Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid theory to the Ohio State and Michigan studies.

The Leadership Grid portrays five major leadership styles: authority-compliance, country- club management, impoverished management, middle-of-the-road management, and team management. Both Ohio and Michigan, and the grid outline the concept that leaders can have concerns for results, and also people.

 

Study the managerial (leadership) grid and explain the derivation of five major styles. Define each of these styles and explain how a leader with each style might be described.

  1. Authority-Compliance: Heavy emphasis on task and job requirements. This style is 
result-driven and people are regarded as tools. Leader is controlling, demanding, hard 
driving, and overpowering.
  2. Country-Club Management: Heavy emphasis on interpersonal relationships. Leaders 
are agreeable, eager to help, comforting, and uncontroversial.
  3. Impoverished Management: Leader is unconcerned with both the task and interpersonal relationships. The leader is uninvolved, withdrawn, indifferent, noncommittal, resigned, and apathetic.
  4. Middle-of-the-road Management: Heavy emphasis on compromising. Intermediate concern for both the task and the people completing the task. Leaders are expedient, prefer the middle ground, soft-petal disagreement, and swallow convictions in the interest of “progress”.
  5. Team Management: Heavy emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationships. Leader: stimulates participation, acts determined, gets issues into the open, makes priorities clear, follows through, behaves open-mindedly, and enjoys working.

 

Explain the paternalism/maternalism style and how it is derived from the managerial grid. Describe as extensively as possible the behaviors associated with this style. Can you think of any examples of well-known leaders who use this style? Is a paternalistic/maternalistic leader aware of his or her style? How would a paternalistic/maternalistic leader score on the Style Questionnaire? What questions would you include on a questionnaire to assess the behaviors 
associated with this style?

Paternalism/Maternalism: refers to a leader who uses both (1,9) and (9,1) styles, but doesn’t integrate the two. These leaders are considered “fatherly” or “motherly” to their followers.

  • These leaders build a positive, growing, family-like relationship with their followers.
  • Pastors tend to build a family-like relationship with those that attend their services.
  • These leaders may or may not realize their style of leadership. They try to make the 
most of key decisions and they reward/punish behaviors that are beneficial or 
noncompliant respectively.
  • The leaders would score more on the nurturing side of the LBDQ.
  • “How often does the leader punish or reward behaviors that are noncompliant or 
beneficial to the group?”

 

Explain the opportunistic style and how it is derived from the managerial grid. Describe as extensively as possible the behaviors associated with this style. Can you think of any examples of well-known leaders who use this style? Is an opportunistic leader aware of his or her style? 
How would an opportunistic leader score on the Style Questionnaire? 
What questions would you include on a questionnaire to assess the behaviors 
associated with this style? 


Opportunistic Style: refers to a leader who uses any combination of the basic five styles for the purpose of personal advancement.

  • Opportunistic leaders adapt and shift his or her leadership behavior to gain a personal advantage, putting self-interest ahead of other priorities. PERSONAL GAIN
  • Opportunistic leaders are very aware of their style of leadership because it revolves around their own personal development.
  • Opportunistic leaders are task-oriented.
- “How often does the leader ask for constructive criticism on his/her leadership styles?”

 

Complete Case 4.1 (or 4.2. or 4.3) and answer all questions. Case 4.2

  1. Susan’s leadership is one of authority-compliance.
  2. She is a hardcore accomplisher. It’s easy for people to develop an opinion of her style because they either love it or hate it.
  3. I think she should stay as productive as she is now, but make more of an effort to connect and relate to her employees.
  4. If she connects with her employees better, I think it would benefit both her and her business.

 

Rate yourself on the Style Questionnaire. Do your scores suggest that you are more task- oriented or people-oriented? Tell a story that shows how your behavior in one situation illustrated your dominant leadership style.

Task Score: 40

Relationship Score: 45

On field day, (even though our team won) I was more concerned with building better relationships with the people in my group. I feel like we connected well and that’s why we were able to succeed.

 

Is the “Impoverished management” style ever appropriate or desirable for an organization?

No. It’s lazy and careless.

 

Who is the best leader you know? The worst? To what extent does the style approach account for the differences between these leaders?

Jesus Christ is the best leader I know. I don’t know any “worst leaders”, because I don’t consider them leaders. The worst leaders are impoverished ones and the best are team-managers.

 

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Skills Approach (Ch. 3)

What is the skills approach? What are the 3 basic personal skills that Katz outlines? Define and describe each of these skills.

The skills approach is a process that people use to evaluate potential leaders. It involves discussing someone’s ability to learn and develop leadership skills. The 3 basic skills that Katz outlines are technical, human, and conceptual skills. Technical skill is knowing how to do a specific job or activity. Human skill is pretty self-explanatory, it’s knowing how to work with people of different backgrounds. The third skill, conceptual skill, is to know how to work with ideas and concepts.

 

How might group size affect the relative importance of each of the three skills in Katz’ model?

I think that no matter the size of a group, these three skills are important. The size of the group doesn’t change the importance of having a skillful leader.

 

When the skills model was developed, what were Mumford and the other researchers trying to explain? This model delineated components of effective leader performance. List the 3 competencies, define and describe each.

When the skills model was developed, Mumford and the other researchers were trying to explain that there are capabilities leaders can learn, and it suggests that leadership can be learned by anyone that puts in the effort. The three competencies are problem-solving skills, social judgement skills, and knowledge. Problem solving skills are a leader’s creative ability to solve a problem, regardless of the circumstances. Social judgement skills are skills used to understand people and social systems or situations. Knowledge is the implementation of skills properly.

 

Within the Mumford Skills model are Individual Attributes and Leadership Outcomes. Describe and define them and their components.

Individual Attributes:
General Cognitive Ability: A person’s intelligence— their ability to be creative and reason. Crystallized Cognitive Ability: Intellectual abilities acquired over time. It is the knowledge people gain from personal experiences.
Motivation: (willingness, dominance, commitment to the social good)
Personality: Traits that a person has which help him/her be an effective, relatable leader.

Leadership Outcomes:

Effective Problem Solving: Having good problem-solving skills will lead to effective problem solving.
Performance: These reflect how well the leader has done his/her job.

 

Complete Case 3.1. (or 3.2. or 3.3.) and answer all questions.

Case 3.3
1. Andy’s success is due to his people-skills— or rather his human skills.
2. Kelly needs to work on her human skills, Danielle needs to work on her technical skills, and Patrick also needs to work on his human skills. Kelly should work on getting along with her coworkers, while Patrick should work on customer service. Danielle should sit down with Andy at some point and learn the number side to how the business works.

3. Andy’s approach to his job and his employees is that of a good leader. He helps his employees to be successful, and then to be better than even that. His leadership suggests that you should try to balance all three types of skills in order to be the most effective.

 

Rate yourself on the Skills Inventory. What are your leadership competencies? Do your scores suggest that one or two of the skills are stronger? Do you agree with this assessment? Give a personal example to support this. How might you expect your results to change 5 years from now?

Technical Skill: 25
Human Skill: 28
Conceptual Skill: 23
My human skills are stronger than my technical and conceptual skills. I would definitely agree with this assessment because I think it accurately describes my strengths and weaknesses over these three types of skill. I feel like it’s easiest for me to connect with people before anything else when approaching something new. It takes a little longer for me to understand technicalities, and then I struggle with complex concepts. I think that in 5 years I’ll have stronger conceptual skills because I’ll have more knowledge, and also, my brain will be more developed.

 

How do the problem-solving skills of leaders and managers differ?
When leaders solve problems, they do it in such a way that the solution goes beyond what is simply required. Good problem solving creates solutions that are logical, effective and unique. As a manager, problem solving doesn’t need to happen at such a high level. It just has to be logistically applicable. There is less uniqueness and excessive thought that goes into the problem-solving of managers.

 

Are social judgment skills the same as emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence is based on how people feel and how leaders reciprocate that feeling back, and understanding the way emotions affect other people. Social judgement is based on the knowledge of people and common reactions that happen because of certain situations. Social judgement also includes stereotypes.

 

How does the skills approach fit with the processual nature of leadership? Influence? Group context of leadership? Goal attainment?

The skills approach outlines everything that a leader needs to have or at least be aware of in order to be a successful leader. The leadership process ties into this because it organizes the skills in a linear model for the leader to follow or strive for. With these skills, a leader will be successful and therefore will be influential. (People tend to follow leaders who know what they’re doing and are good at it.) With a strong leader and loyal followers, goals can be reached a lot easier and faster.

 

The Mumford Skills Model was based on studies of more than 1800 Army officers. How might leadership in the army be similar to/different from leadership in business, the arts, collegiate sports, or scientific research?

Leadership is a universal concept, meaning it can be applied in many circumstances. Leadership is more prevalent in the army because of the well-defined structure of officers, cadets, lieutenants, generals, etc. However, all of the situations listed have similar structures based on leadership roles.

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Trait Approach (Ch. 2)

Define and discuss the importance of the following traits associated with leaders: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. Is this list all- inclusive?

Intelligence: Leaders normally have higher intelligence than non-leaders. However, a leader should not be too much smarter than his/her followers within a group because it can cause conflict and confusion. People who have different intelligence levels may find it more difficult to communicate.

Self-Confidence: Knowing the abilities and limitations of oneself is a key trait of a leader. A person cannot assure other people unless he/she is confident about him/her self.

Determination: This has a lot to do with initiative and being proactive. Leaders have to put their foot forward to show everyone else in the group the steps in order to reach the common goal. This is done through determination. Determination also plays a role in overcoming boundaries and obstacles that may present themselves on the way.

Integrity: A leader must be trustworthy and honest. Otherwise, the group would be mislead, and would eventually fail. Leaders need to be able to stick to their word and only make promises that they can keep.

Sociability: Without building relationships with the group, a leader will not be able to successfully communicate with his/her followers. A leader must have the capacity to maintain positive relationships within the group in order for the members to remain cooperative.

This list is not all-inclusive, but it does cover the main “food groups” of a leader. Each one branches off into more specific traits— like responsibility.

 

Choose one of the main traits associated with leaders. How can it be developed? Demonstrated to others? Identify one or two people who have this trait. How does it serve them in their leadership role?

Determination can be developed into a theme of direction, purpose and drive—despite obstacles. For example, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was a leader with a lot of determination. He used obstacles as lessons instead of letting them break him down and stop his movement. Without Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s determination, America would’ve taken a lot longer to become desegregated.

 

What are the “Big Five” personality factors? How do they affect your leadership abilities and capabilities? Which factor(s) was most strongly associated with leadership? Discuss which of these personality traits you feel you possess and give a personal example of how they benefited you in a leadership context.

The “Big Five” personality factors are: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Each factor plays a role in a good leader. Neuroticism can be a negative factor, however, that negativity can be used to drive a person to desire change. Desiring change can develop into a passion for achieving a goal, which is another good quality for a leader to have. The factors that are more positively associated with leadership are: extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. I feel that posses the conscientiousness factor because I’m a very organized person. I like to plan things out before trying to execute them. As a soccer captain, I would plan which drills we needed to work on before our next game, and that’s what we would do at practice.

 

Define/describe emotional intelligence. How big of an impact do you think emotional intelligence has on helping people be successful? Give a personal example of its impact on your life.

Emotional intelligence is “…the ability to perceive and express emotions, to use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with emotions, and to effectively manage emotions within oneself and in relationships with others” (28). In other words, it’s to take feelings and really evaluate them under different circumstances. Having emotional intelligence has a big impact on helping people be successful because it helps them know their emotional limitations and abilities. As a big sister, and the oldest of three, I know the right and wrong ways to interact with my little brothers based on their emotional reactions.

 

Complete Case 2.1 and answer all questions. If you were one of the candidates applying for this position what would you do to improve your chances of being selected? How would knowledge of the trait approach help you with your preparation and application for this position?

Case 2.1 Questions:

  1. If I were Sandra, I would select Thomas Santiago.
  2. The trait approach helps Sandra to look at the candidates side-by-side and decide which traits she thinks will be most valuable in the position she needs to fill.
  3. The trait approach in this case causes the results of the decision to be heavily subjective.

To improve my chances of being selected for the position, I would outline my intentions for the company and present them to the person making the decision. Knowing the trait approach, I would want coworkers to give only positive opinions of me to the person deciding who will fill the position.

 

Rate yourself on the Leadership Trait Questionnaire. What do you perceive as your greatest strength? Give an example of how your behavior in one situation illustrated this strength. What do you perceive as your greatest weakness? Give an example of how your behavior in one situation illustrated this weakness.

I believe my greatest strength is being outgoing. At the Lead field day, I felt that my outgoing personality allowed me to step up and try the obstacles first when no one else would. My greatest weakness is determination. On field day, there were times when the team got stuck on puzzles, and I found it hard to continue to put in my best effort in finding a solution. The more time that passed, the less determined I became.

 

Is charisma an inborn trait or can it be acquired later on in life? How might a person acquire charisma?

I think that charisma is something a person can develop. We change based on our experiences, and there are certain types of social experiences that can make someone become more charismatic over time. A person might acquire charisma by noticing another charismatic person and wanting to be more like them. Also, people are more charismatic when they find themselves in situations that allow them to express themselves and the things that they are truly passionate about. In comfortable situations, it’s easy to be more charismatic and lively.

 

Compare the traits of emotional intelligence and social intelligence. How are they the same? Different? Can a person possess one of these traits without the other?

Emotional intelligence has to do with being aware of one’s own emotions and thoughts, while social intelligence is more focused on the emotions and thoughts of other people and how aware we are of them. The two concepts are similar in the sense that they both require knowledge and awareness of emotions. They differ in the sense that one can have emotional intelligence without being social. One can posses emotional intelligence without possessing social intelligence because it’s easier to predict one self than it is to predict other people.

 

Why do people’s perceptions of leaders matter? How does perception fit with the process nature of leadership? How does it fit with the influential nature of leadership?

People’s perceptions of leaders matter immensely. A leader cannot lead people that think he/she is not capable or influential. Perception allows a leader to access the minds and motivation of the followers, which is a key step in the process of leadership.

 

What is meta-analysis? Why might this be a useful approach to studying trait research?

Meta-analysis is the process of taking qualitative and quantitative data and combining it to create better results and conclusions. This is helpful because it allows trait research to get a bigger picture of what traits really matter and what that has to do with successful leadership.

 

Kirkpatrick and Locke postulated that leaders differ from non-leaders on six traits. What do you think non-leadership looks like? Why might some people not want to be leaders?

Kirkpatrick and Locke proposed that non-leaders and leaders differ in the areas of: drive, motivation, integrity, confidence, cognitive ability, and task knowledge. I think that leadership is when someone has all of these traits and is confident in them— taking it to the level of portraying them before a crowd of followers. Being a leader means to be able to confidently lead people in one specific direction despite difficulties and obstacles. Not everyone wants to be a leader, even if they have these qualities. One reason for that might be that they’re more timid, and don’t want to be in a “spotlight” position. Other reasons may include simply not wanting to be the one that has the last word when making a decision. These non-leaders can still help to lead the group without being the designated decision maker.

 

What are some leadership challenges today? (For example, economic policy, climate change, world hunger). Which of the leadership traits on Table 2.1 are most relevant to address that challenge? Are any traits needed by leaders today that aren’t listed here?

There are many leadership challenges today, especially with the presidential election going on. Things like climate change, economic stability, world hunger, and other conflicts are major concerns to our society. I think that any or all of the traits in Table 2.1 are needed to address the issues of today. I think the table covers all of the traits needed by leaders today. Whether or no those leaders posses all of those traits is a different story.

 

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Reflection #4: How my Strengths Inform my Leadership Practice

“You always want to include people and make them feel part of the group. You’re positive—quick to smile. You like to stay on the lookout for the positivity in every situation. You celebrate every achievement. It is so good to be alive. There is little to be gained from conflict and friction. You can’t quite believe how much time is wasted by people trying to impose their views on others. You love to learn. You are energized by the steady and deliberate journey from ignorance to competence. You feel emotionally bound to follow through to completion. Apologies are not enough. When assigning new responsibilities, people will look to you first because they know it will get done. Your willingness to volunteer may sometimes lead you to take on more than you should.”

These are the ideas that my StrengthsFinder report listed that I feel represent me accurately. It also stated that my five strengths are: Includer, Positivity, Harmony, Learner, and Responsibility. My initial reaction after reading my report was agreement. I do believe that I thrive on happiness and success, like most people, and these things are included in that. I believe that positivity is the root to all happiness, and harmony and responsibility are the roots to success.

I wasn’t surprised by most of the report, but one thing did catch my attention. The report said, “The outcome of the learning is less significant that the “getting there””. I never thought about it that way. I do enjoy the process of learning, but I never thought I would enjoy that process more than the result. Overall, I like my StrengthsFinder report because I think that it accurately describes the skills I tend to use when I find myself in a leadership position.

My first theme is ‘includer’. I always try to make people feel like they’re important to the group. I believe that group success stems from the discussions of various viewpoints of different members. The more people that contribute their ideas and philosophies, the more united the group will be. In addition to making sure those who are already involved feel included, I also try to expand the group by bringing more people into it. I do everything in my power to not judge anyone before I know them and their background.

My second theme is ‘positivity’, which I believe is the most important one. One cannot get through life as a pessimist—at least not in a way that they’ll end up happy. Being a positive leader means having contagious enthusiasm and optimism. Many people need someone who can lighten their day or mood, and I think that a leader should absolutely be that person for their followers. I just can’t imagine a world where people don’t try to see the good in situations, or at least the possibility for good, no matter how much bad there is.

The third theme from my report is ‘harmony’. In my view, there is so little to be gained when a group tries to progress with conflict and friction. As a group with a common goal, I believe we should try to find common ground and sort out our differences for the sake of that goal. A group with inner conflict will eventually split apart. We’re all in the same boat, and we need to make sure our ideas and voiced opinions (as a unit) reflect on that.

My fourth, most foundational theme is ‘learner’. I absolutely love learning, and the feeling of significance that results from it. There are many ways to learn, but for me, I learn through experiences. Whether it’s working out a math problem on my own, or traveling to a country I’ve never been to before, I learn best when I’m forced to walk into something new or foreign. I like to learn from other people as well, and I think that leadership should be a kind of learning process that is reciprocated between both leaders and followers.

The fifth theme in my report is ‘responsibility’. In leadership, this is a big one. As a leader, I take psychological ownership of anything I commit to. Excuses are simply unacceptable. I believe that every leader has an obligation to be responsible for his/her group and the people within it. Without responsibility, good leadership does not exist.

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Culture and Leadership (Ch. 16)

Explain the focus of culture and leadership.
The study of culture, its dimensions, and the effects of culture on the leadership process focuses on a collection of related ideas rather than on a single unified theory.
Explain the history of globalization and what challenges and needs have been created.
Since WWII, globalization (the increased interdependence between nations) has been advancing throughout the world. People are becoming more interconnected. There is more international trade, cultural exchange, and use of worldwide telecommunication systems. Increased globalization has created many challenges, including the need to design effective multinational organizations, to identify and select appropriate leaders for these entries, and to manage organizations with culturally diverse employees.
Explain the five cross-cultural competencies for leaders.
1. Leaders need to understand business, political, and cultural environments worldwide.
2. Leaders need to learn the perspectives, tastes, trends, and technologies of many other countries.
3. Leaders need to be able to work simultaneously with people from many cultures.
4. Leaders must be able to adapt to living and communicating in other cultures.
5. Leaders need to learn to relate to people from other cultures from a position of equality rather than cultural superiority.
Define culture and explain the terms related to culture.
Culture is an abstract term, and is therefore hard to define. Also, different people often define it is dissimilar ways. For the purpose of the leadership book, culture is the learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of people. Related to culture are the terms multicultural and diversity. Multicultural implies an approach that takes more than one culture into account. Diversity refers to the existence of different cultures or ethnicities within a group or an organization.
Describe House’s research on the relationship between culture and leadership.
To describe how different cultures view leadership behaviors in others, GLOBE researchers (House & Javidan, 2004) identified six global leadership behaviors: charismatic/value based, team oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomous, and self-protective. These were used to asses the different ways in which various cultural clusters viewed leadership.
What is enthnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism is the tendency for individuals to place their own group (ethnic, racial, or cultural) at the center of their observations of others and the world.
What is prejudice?
Prejudice is a largely fixed attitude, belief, or emotion held by an individual about another individual or group that is based on faulty or unsubstantiated data. It refers to judgements about other based on previous decisions or experiences.
What is GLOBE and what are its nine cultural dimensions?
GLOBE stands for the: Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness research program. Its nine cultural dimensions are: uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation.
How did researchers test the validity of the culture clusters they developed?
To test whether the clusters, or groups of countries, were valid, researchers did a statistical analysis of questionnaire data collected from individuals in each of the clusters.
What is implicit leadership theory?  What contribution does it make to the study of leadership?
According to implicit leadership theory, individuals have implicit beliefs and convictions about the attributes and beliefs that distinguish leaders from nonleaders and effective leaders from ineffective leaders. From the perspective of this theory, leadership is in the eye of the beholder.
What are the strengths of this approach to culture?
 This approach to culture…
  • …has a wide scope: data were collected by 170 social scientists, representing 62 countries from all regions of the world, and included responses from 17,300 managers in 951 organizations.
  • …emerges from a well-developed quantitative research design.
  • …provides a classification of cultural dimensions that is more expansive than the commonly used Hofstede classification system.
  • …provides useful information about what is universally accepted as good and bad leadership.
  • …underscores the complexity of the leadership process and how it is influenced by culture.

What are the criticisms of this approach to culture?

This approach to culture…

  • …does not provide a clear set of assumptions and propositions that can form a single theory about the way culture relates to leadership or influences the leadership process.
  • …focuses on what people perceive to be leadership and ignores a large  body of research that frames leadership in terms of what leaders do.
  • …represents a very broad range of behaviors, and as a result compromised the precision and validity of the leadership measures.
  • …provides a provocative list of universally endorsed desirable and undesirable leadership attributes.